Old and New Media: Converging During the Pakistan Emergency (March 2007-February 2008)
Submitted by Huma Yusuf on January 12, 2009 - 12:53pm.
Footnotes
[1] "Pakistanis Condemning the Mockery of the Judicial System in Pakistan"
[2] Benkler, Yochai. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. Yale University Press (New Haven: 2006). P. 213
[3] The paper describes the use of digital technologies and new media platforms in Pakistan between March 2007 and February 2008, a period colloquially referred to as the ‘Pakistan Emergency’. In this time, the military ruler General Musharraf dismissed the Supreme Court Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry, thereby undermining the country’s independent judiciary. Taking advantage of a weakened judiciary, General Musharraf continued to serve simultaneously as the country’s president and chief of army staff, thus blurring the distinction between democracy and dictatorship. Between November 2007 and February 2008, Pakistanis learnt just how rocky the road to democratic rule can be: in that time, General Musharraf imposed a state of emergency and suspended the constitution, opposition parties called for elections, a popular politician--former prime minister Benazir Bhutto--was brutally assassinated, and general elections were held. Moreover, press freedom was drastically curtailed during this time--amendments promulgated by General Musharraf in the summer of 2007 made it impossible for the media to report on elections or investigate matters relating to the government or Pakistan Army.
[4] Certain digital technologies and new media platforms such as wikis (server programs that allow users to collaborate in forming the content of a website) and Twitter are not described in this paper because they have yet to gain popularity in Pakistan owing to limited internet access, low literacy rates, and the non-availability of web content in the national Urdu language.
[6] Powell, Adam Clayton: "Democracy and New Media in Developing Nations: Opportunities and Challenges". Democracy and New Media. Eds. Henry Jenkins and David Thorburn. MIT Press (Cambridge: 2003). P. 173
[8] Mufti, Shahan. "Musharraf’s Monster". Columbia Journalism Review. November/December 2007.
[9] "Musharraf Imposes Tough Curbs on Pakistani Media". VOA News. November 4, 2007.
[10] "Eight TV and 10 Radio Channels Issued Licenses". The Daily Times. May 23, 2008.
[11] Precise television viewership statistics for Pakistan are not available. This pie chart showing advertising time shares on different private channels and the state-owned PTV is thus a good indicator of the relative popularity of different channels. (Source: MediaTrak Pakistan).
[12] Montero, David. "Quake Emboldens Pakistani TV". The Christian Science Monitor. December 1, 2005.
[13] Mufti, Shahan. "Musharraf’s Monster". Columbia Journalism Review. November/December 2007.
[14] Walsh, Declan. "Musharraf Closes TV Stations as Democracy Calls Grow". June 5, 2007.
[15] "Govt Bans Kamran Khan’s Geo.TV show". Teeth Maestro. March 16, 2007.
[16] "Musharraf Promulgates PEMRA Amended Ordinance 2007". The News. June 4, 2007.
[17] "Top Judge Attacks Musharraf’s Rule". BBC Online. November 6, 2007.
[18] McDowell, Robin. "Pakistan TV Fights Back". The Associated Press. November 8, 2007.
[19] "Pakistan Emergency Geo News". YouTube. November 3, 2007.
[20] "Live Pakistani Television". The Pakistan Policy Blog.
[21] "Two Pakistani Television Channels Broadcasting From Dubai Ordered Off the Air". International Freedom of Expression Exchange. November 19, 2007.
[22] Dawn News article
[23] "Top Judge Attacks Musharraf Rule". BBC Online. November 6, 2007.
[24] "PTA Annual Report 2007". Pakistan Telecommunications Authority. In the 1990s, three telecom operators (Paktel, Ufone, and Mobilink) were present in Pakistan. However, exorbitant connection fees, airtime charges, and billing on incoming calls kept mobile penetration at 0.2 percent until the end of the decade. The Pakistan Telecom Authority (PTA)--a government agency founded in 1997 to regulate the telecom industry--introduced a calling party pays (CPP) policy in 2001, which resulted in industry competition that helped increase mobile penetration to 5.28 percent in 2004. The introduction of two new telecom operators in early 2005 led to fiercer competition, cheaper connections, and affordable handsets. By July 2006, overall teledensity in Pakistan stood at 46.9 percent, of which only 3.3 percent was due to fixed line services.
[25] "PTA Annual Report 2007". Pakistan Telecommunications Authority. According to the PTA, the total target market for the cellphone users--excluding those living well below the poverty line and children under the age of 8--is about 97 million people. In other words, over 60 percent of the potential Pakistani market was using cellphones when Musharraf suspended the constitution. Since 2003, telecom companies have invested over US$ 8 billion in Pakistan, with the mobile sector accounting for 73 percent of that expenditure. In the 2007 fiscal year alone, the mobile sector invested US$ 2.7 billion. And the market is expected to grow: China Mobile has acquired one cellular network and contracted US$ 500 million to companies such as Ericcson, ZTE, and Alcatel to roll out new networks. Meanwhile, existing mobile service providers are investing heavily in the industry. For example, Mobilink, the largest local network, invested US$ 500 million in the 2008 fiscal year to improve the quality of its service and expand infrastructure.
[26] "PTA Annual Report 2007". Pakistan Telecommunications Authority.
[27] "Details of the LUMS Rally and Police Response". The Emergency Times. November 7, 2007.
[28] "Protest at LUMS". Metroblogging Lahore. November 7, 2007.
[29] "Update @ 13:40: Police Outside LUMS Lahore". Teeth Maestro. November 7, 2007.
[30] "2nd Major Protest Rally at LUMS". YouTube. November 7, 2007.
[31] CNN iReport.
[32] "LUMS Protest on CNN". YouTube. November 7, 2007.
[33] "LUMS Protest". YouTube. November 5, 2007.
[34] "2nd Major Protest Rally at LUMS". YouTube. November 7, 2007.
[35] "LUMS Student Protests in Pakistan--Newseye--Dawn News". YouTube. November 10, 2007.
[36] "LUMS Besieged by Police". The Emergency Times. December 4, 2007.
[37] "Update @ 13:43: LUMS Besieged, Important Information for Islamabad". Teeth Maestro. December 4, 2007.
[38] "Update @ 16:00: PTI Information Secretary Sends Activism Message for Students". Teeth Maestro. November 8, 2007.
[39] "Essamlums Photostream". Flickr. November 7, 2007.
[40] "Update @ 21:13: Images from Today’s Peace Rally at LUMS". Teeth Maestro. November 9, 2007.
[41] "We Oppose Emergency in Pakistan". Facebook.
[42] "Pictures from the Islamabad Rally". The Emergency Times. December 18, 2007.
[43] "SAC Lahore Members Harassed and Beaten Up". The Emergency Times. February 2, 2008.
[44] "Parliament Watch". The Emergency Times. February 6, 2008.
[45] "Lobbying for the Restoration of the Judiciary". The Emergency Times. January 26, 2008.
[46] "Force MMA to Boycott". The Emergency Times. December 2, 2007.
[47] Sambrook, Richard. "Citizen Journalism and the BBC". Neiman Reports. Winter 2005.
[48] Awab Alvi in discussion with the author, December 31, 2007.
[49] Global Voices Online.
[50] Metroblogging Karachi is an English-language blog, but it reflects the diverse voices of Karachiites. According to Umar Siddiqi, the overseer of Metroblogging Karachi, most of the people blogging on the site are university students, primarily enrolled at the University of Karachi, which boasts a student population of 24,000. The university is economically and ethnically diverse and long thought to be a microcosm of the nation. There is, however, an age bias in the comments present on Metroblogging Karachi, as many middle-aged and older Pakistanis are yet to go online.
[51] "Was Yesterday’s Carnage in Karachi All PPP’s Doing or Did MQM Have a Hand In It?" Teeth Maestro. December 28, 2007.
[52] "Updated: Mobile pictures--Benazir Wad Definitely Shot Dead Before the Blast". Teeth Maestro. December 29, 2007.
[53] "Mobile Phone Pictures Reveal Benazir Was Shot Before The Blast". The Emergency Times. December 31, 2007.
[54] "More Video Evidence Bhutto Did Not Die in Bomb Blast". YouTube. December 30, 2007.
[55] "Video of Benazir’s Last Seven Seconds Released". Teeth Maestro. December 31, 2007.
[56] Khan, Ilyas. "Bhutto Murder: Key Questions". BBC Online. February 8, 2008.
[57] "Become a Citizen Journalist". Dawn News.
[58] Najam, Adil. "Benazir Bhutto Assassinated". All Things Pakistan. December 27, 2007.
[59] "Tribute to Benazir Bhutto". YouTube. December 27, 2007.
[60] "Benazir Bhutto Tribute--Assasinated on 27-12-07". YouTube. December 27, 2007.
[61] "Benazir Bhutto Tribute". Respectance.
[62] "Benazir Bhutto: Catman’s Photostream". Flickr. December 27, 2007.
[63] "A Flower for Benazir Bhutto: Sir Cam’s Photostream". Flickr. December 27, 2007.
[64] Fraser, Simon. "Facebook Tackles Bhutto Hoaxers". BBC Online. January 3, 2008.
[65] "Pakistan: Election Commission Not Impartial". Human Rights Watch. February 12, 2008.
[66] "Pakistan: Media Restrictions Undermine Election". Human Rights Watch. February 16, 2008.
[67] "As Pakistan Election Nears, Citizens Fan Out to Combat Vote Rigging". The Wall Street Journal. February 16, 2008.
[68] "Pakistan’s Tehalka!" The Emergency Times. February 16, 2008.
[69] "Hamid Mir Writes to Nations". NaiTazi.com. February 17, 2008.
[70] "Karachi: MQM Sets Eyes On 18 Out of 20 NA Seats from Karachi". NaiTazi.com. February 15, 2008.
[71] "Election Roundup". Teeth Maestro. February 19, 2008.
[72] "Stamp Lota". Chapati Mystery Blog. February 18, 2008.
[73] "Beyond Belief: My First Pakistani Voting Experience". Teeth Maestro. February 18, 2008.
[74] "Kal, Aaj, Aur Kal (Part One)--Poem by Aitzaz Ahsan". YouTube. February 14, 2008.
[75] "Rigging by PPP in NA 250 Karachi Elections 2008". YouTube. February 21, 2008.
[76] "YouTube Banned in Pakistan". PK Politics Blog. February 22, 2008.
[77] "YouTube Banned in Pakistan". Adnan’s Crazy Blogging World. February 22, 2008.
[78] "YouTube Banned in Pakistan". Adnan’s Crazy Blogging World. February 22, 2008.
[79] "Vote Rigging Videos in Karachi: Could This Be Why YouTube is Blocked?" Teeth Maestro. February 22, 2008.
[80] "YouTube Blocked in Pakistan by PTA’s Orders, After Vote Rigging Videos Show Up???". ShiaChat. February 22, 2008.
[81] "Pakistan Blocks YouTube Website". BBC Online. February 24, 2008.
[82] http://www.naitazi.com/2008/02/24/mqm-election-rigging-videos-works-without-youtube/
[83] "MQM Rigging in Karachi". YouTube. February 22, 2008.
[84] "Pakistan Lifts YouTube Ban". ABC News. February 27, 2008.
[85] "TWA Internet Backbone Link Blocks Only Blasphemous Video URL". Teeth Maestro. February 24, 2008.
